Environment and Resource Management

Hand rearing husbandary

Initial assessment of the joey

The first few hours of contact are usually the most critical and can mean the difference between success and failure. Make a quick assessment of the joey, checking for any life threatening injuries. If the joey is not seriously injured, put it in a quiet, warm area away from people and pets.

You should also leave the animal alone as too much contact can kill it. Do not cuddle the joey as though it is a puppy or baby, as humans are considered predators and your presence will disturb it.

Many people find orphaned joeys attached to their mother's teat. To remove the joey, place your fingers over its nostrils and gently twist its body. If this does not work, put a large safety pin or bulldog clip on the treat in front of the joey's mouth and gently cut the teat from the mother's side. The safety pin or clip stops the joey from sucking the teat into its mouth and choking. The teat will shrivel once its removed, making it easy to dislodge from the joey's mouth. Do not rip the teat from the young, as this causes severe trauma to its mouth.
Red-necked walaby in artifical pouch

The next most important step is to put the joey in a "pouch" to keep it warm. As a temporary measure, place the joey down your shirt. It is very important to make a pouch, as joeys become distressed if they are left in the open.

Do not try to feed the joey unless you are caring for it overnight. If you are caring for it, use a water/glucose mix or an electrolyte replacer for the first 12 hours.

Pouches

The mother's pouch fits tightly around the joey and is warm, humid and secure. A secure pouch is very important. Kangaroos enjoy having their feet around their ears and possums put their nose in the base of their tail. Joeys survive in low oxygen areas, so the pouch does not need to be open to the air. However, the joey should be able to poke its head out when it wants to.

bridled nail-tail in pouch

Pouches should be made of natural materials, especially if the joey has no fur. Cotton flannelette is good for this purpose, as are Soft cotton baby blankets or other natural blankets are also very useful. Tight-knit woolen jumpers can be made into pouches (cut off the arms and sew up the neck and arm holes, or sew up the end of a sleeve as a pouch for a young possum or bandicoot).

Possums, bandicoots and other small marsupial joeys can live happily in a woollen sock when they are young and a beanie as they get older.
Bridled nail-tail wallaby in pouch
Alternatively, you can sew pouches of varies sizes to cater for their growth. Wallaby joeys require larger pouches and prefer to be suspended with the bag just touching the floor. An old knapsack can be a good outer bag or you can make a bag that hangs from a coat hanger. hanging pouch
artifical pouches
Artificial pouch Artificial pouches

Keeping a furless joey's skin moist

A mother marsupial's pouch is constantly moist. Furless joeys become dehydrated and their skin becomes brittle when they leave this environment.

To return the moisture, rub moisturising creams such as Sorbelene Cream or Faldings Lanolin on their skin. Sorbelene Cream also removes faeces and dirt from the animal. Do not use mineral-based oils such as baby oil or highly perfumed creams. The joey should be oiled at least twice a day, more often if it still has dry skin. The easiest way to do this is to rub the cream on to your hands and then pat them over the joey, paying particular attention to the tail, ears, elbows and hocks.

Providing warmth

It is important to provide the precise temperature for furless joeys as they cannot regulate their body temperature. Unfurred and lightly furred joeys require a constant temperature of between 35deg to 37deg (day and night).

Once a joey has fur, it will not need an external heat source. Keep a furred joey at about 28deg. if it is sick, or in an artificially cold environment. The temperature range is critical (especially for furless joeys), as both over-heating and under-heating will put it at risk.

Heat pads can be effective, but be careful of over-heating the joey. A single electric blanket on a low setting can be effective, but cannot get wet and should not be folded. Heaters from waterbeds come with a thermostat and should not be folded. Hot water bottles or a wine cask bladder in an esky lined with towels or blankets works well for smaller marsupials. Don't use boiling water in the hot water bottle and wrap the bottle in a towel to prevent it coming into direct contact with the joey's skin. Keep a close eye on temperature regulation, as it will fluctuate.

 Heat lamp
Heat Lamp

Choice of milk substitutes

There are many different types of milk supplements on the market. Do not use cows' milk. Below are some types of milk that have been specifically designed for marsupials or have been successfully used to raise marsupials.

Wombaroo

Wombaroo was the first company to design milk powders for specific types of marsupials. The milk changes composition depending on the developmental stage or "age factor" of the marsupial. It usually produces well-furred joeys, which tend to have few problems. It is concentrated, which means you do not use as much as other varieties. It can be difficult to mix properly, tending to form a suspension rather than a solution. The directions are on the packet and it comes with an easy-to-follow feeding chart based on joey weight.

Biolac

Biolac is a more recent addition to the market and, like Wombaroo, has a milk formula that changes with the age. It is specially developed for marsupials. When raised on this, joeys have a good growth rate and fur coat and very few problems. It is easy to use and relatively cost efficient.

There has been the occasional problem with raising very young furless marsupials on this formula and some animals have shown signs of calcium deficiency (brittle bones that break easily). A balanced calcium mixture provided once a day between milk feeds can remedy this. Most people tend to use this formula because it is more universal for marsupials. The directions are on the container and you feed an animal about 10 to 15 percent of its body weight daily.

Di-Vetelact/ Digestelact

Di-vetelact milk Digestelact was developed for human babies but was also being used for orphaned animals. Di-Vetelact was developed to address this market and was one of the first products available for raising wildlife and domestic animals. Joeys raised on this formula tend to have reasonably sparse fur growth. Some carers add a high protein baby cereal or a combination of canola oil, natural yoghurt and egg yolk to the milk to help prevent this poor fur growth. It is reasonably cheap and easy to obtain. The mixing ratio is 1 scoop of formula to 50ml of water. Feed the joey 15 to 20 percent of its body weight daily. You can modify the recipe by mixing 1 scoop of Di-Vetelact with two teaspoons egg yolk, one teaspoon of plain yoghurt, 3ml canola oil and 70ml of water. For macropods, add one tablespoon of high protein cereal to 1 litre of milk formula when the joey begins to develop fur, as this tends to give them a better growth rate and fur cover.
Di-vetelact milk

Nan

This product is a low-lactose human milk formula that has been used to raise possums. It is easy to obtain and relatively cheap. Possums take to this formula very well. They have good growth rates and good fur development. It is probably best not to use Nan for wallabies or other marsupials except in emergency situations. The mixing ratio is two scoops to 50ml of water. Feed the animal about 10 to 15 percent of its body weight daily.
Another good emergency formula is 5 to 10 percent glucose solution.

Formula handling and storage

All milk formulas should be made fresh (or taken from the freezer in the case of Wombaroo) daily and any unused portions discarded. It should also be made using water that has been boiled for at least 10 minutes (this will help destroy bacteria). Always feed the joey milk at body temperature (about 30deg) and milk formula should be kept in an airtight container in the fridge.

Feeding

Frequency of feeding

A basic guide to the number of feeds a joey requires can be found in the age factor chart in this document. The frequency of feeding must be adapted to suit the individual orphan. Very weak or dehydrated orphans will need more frequent feeding. However, do not feed joeys more often than every two hours as this tires and weakens them.

As a rule, very young joeys (age factor 0.4 and below with no fur and closed or semi-closed eyes) should be fed once or twice a night. New orphans should be fed at least once during the night for about two days (until they settle). It is enough to feed joeys that are developing fur twice a day (before you go to bed and when you get up in the morning).
Feeding Koala
Feeding koala

Feeding equipment

Commercially manufactured marsupial teats are available for a variety of animal types. You can buy them from your local veterinary clinic, pet shop or wildlife care groups. The size of the teat is very important. Joeys cannot grip teats that are too big or small, which affects their ability to drink. You can feed very small animals, such as furless bandicoots or possums, using a catheter with the needle removed. Syringes and eyedroppers can be used until you are able to buy the correct equipment.

Animals that grow very quickly, such as macropods, may require larger teats as they grow. Prepare teats according to the size of the animal in care. To feed a small animal, pierce the teat with a hot, sterile needle. To feed a larger joey, cut off the tip of the teat.

It is important to control the flow of the milk, as joeys can develop pneumonia if they inhale the fluid. You will be able to tell if the milk is flowing too quickly if it starts to bubble out of the joey's nose. You can also prevent joeys from inhaling milk by holding them face down.

 Teats
Teats

Bottles are also available from veterinary clinics, pet shops and wildlife organisations. Alternatively, well rinsed vanilla essence or mini spirit bottles and 10ml to 20ml syringe will also fit over the end of a teat. All feeding utensils should be sterilised between feeds.

Feeding methods

Feeding wallaby It is easier to leave kangaroos and wallabies in a substitute pouch when you first begin to feed them. You can stop them struggling by covering their eyes. Once settled, joeys should happily sit in a pouch on your lap while you feed them. They will start to drink standing up when they are old enough to leave the pouch. You can wean them into lapping from a bowl at this stage. Never force milk down the animal's throat as this causes them to inhale the liquid. If they will not accept the milk to begin with, dribble it slowly into the side of the mouth. Depending on the age of the joey, it may take three to four feeds before it starts to accept the taste of the milk. Always make sure there is fresh water available for the joey to drink (even for joeys in the pouch).

Possums are easy to feed when they are wrapped securely in a cloth or pouch. To feed them, hold them on their backs in your lap. You may notice that some possums will never take the teat in their mouth. This is quite normal and is the reason why many people let possums lap.
Feeding wallaby


Toileting

Most young animals need help to pass faeces and urine. Marsupial mothers will lick the cloacal area of the joey to stimulate urination and defecation. To replicate this, moisten a tissue with warm water and gently wipe the cloacal area until the joey has finished. If you do not help a joey in toileting, the joey may develop kidney and bladder problems. Once a joey has learnt to wet the pouch it is very difficult to stop. Having a constantly wet pouch can lead to infections, chilling or urine scalding on its skin. By stimulating the joey at each feed, you will have a good idea when something goes wrong, such as blood in their faeces. The joey will usually urinate before passing faeces. It will generally urinate at each feed but defecate only a couple of times a day.

Once joeys start to emerge from the pouch, place them on newspaper after feeding and they will usually oblige you and toilet themselves. If they are reluctant, stimulate the animal while it is standing.
Toileting a possum
Toileting a possum


Weighing

Measuring glider A newly arrived joey should be weighed before it feeds at the same time each day for about two weeks. Once the joey shows signs of steady growth, weigh-ins can drop back to twice weekly. The joey will feel more secure if you weigh it in a pouch (subtract the weight of the pouch from the total weight).

Accurate weight records will tell you how well the joey is progressing. If it the joey starts to lose weight, it may be sick.
Measuring glider

Hygiene

Cleanliness is extremely important when raising joeys. This is even more important for furless joeys because of their immune-deficient state.

Pouches should be changed daily, more often if it is soiled with urine, faeces or milk. Do not wash pouches in heavily scented detergents or fabric softeners as these may leave residues which joeys can react too. Hang the pouch to dry in the sun as this also kills bacteria.

Clean the pouch with Sorbelene Cream and cotton wool as soon as it becomes soiled. You can wash the joey in lukewarm water using an unscented animal shampoo, mild soap or detergent (e.g. Lux). Make sure the joey is dry before returning it to the clean pouch. Washing is an extremely stressful activity for joeys and is best avoided. It is a good idea to groom joeys regularly, especially as they start getting fur. A soft baby brush is good for this as it encourages the joey to start cleaning itself.

It is important to maintain personal hygiene when caring for any wildlife. Make sure you wash your hands before and after feeding the animal.
Very sick joesy being bathed
Caring for joey

Moreover, wash and disinfect the joey's feeding utensils and ensure its mouth is clean after each feed. Nocturnal animals should be fed at dusk so their food does not spoil before they come out to feed. All food should be fed off the ground and any food that falls to the ground should be removed. Cages and yards should be cleaned daily; smaller cages are easier to clean if they are lined with newspaper.

Stress

Stress is the most common cause of illness and death in orphaned joeys. It is very important to have some idea of the natural rearing processes of the marsupial you are raising so that you can mimic this as close as possible.

Try to avoid these stressful situations:

It is important to remember that pouch young normally live in a quiet, dark, secure and constant environment and are gradually exposed to the outside world. Try to replicate this when caring for these animals.

Weaning

Weaning should start after the first pouch emergence, about the time the joey starts to develop fur (age factor 0.6). Offer the joey solid food by putting the food in the esky with it or attaching it to the animal's hanging pouch. The joey will begin to chew the food. As the joey starts to eat more solids, the amount and frequency of milk feeds can be reduced. It is very important to monitor the joey's weight at this stage. If it is not gaining enough weight, you may need to increase the amount of milk being fed, before dropping it back again.

At the pre-emerging stage (age factor <0.6), most marsupials are happy to live in their pouch and be close to you. As they develop fur and start to become more mobile and independent, put them in an enclosure. The enclosure should shelter the joeys from weather and domestic and feral animals, and have enough room for them to exercise.

Do not feed joeys unnatural foods such as chocolate, beer, dry dog food,
lollies or cooked chicken bones. Animals become fond of these foods, causing them to become obese and suffer diet-related problems.

Determining a joey's age and stage of growth

Wombaroo has produced an age factor chart that acts as a guide for feeding joeys. Below is a table that will estimate your (kangaroo/wallaby) joey's age factor.

Description (joey's age factor) Feeds/day Faeces
Eyes closed, unfurred (<0.4) 8 Custard coloured
Eyes open, unfurred (0.4) 5 Custard
Just furred, smooth, starting to eat solids (0.6) 5 - 4 Toothpaste consistency

Long fur, animal emerging from pouch occasionally (>0.6)		 4 - 3 Forming pellets
Long fur, animal emerging from pouch (1.0) 2 Pellets

Eastern grey kangaroo Macropus giganteu

Age (days) Weight (grams) Age (days) Weight (grams)
20 13 170 1094
40 54 180 1233
60 125 190 1380
80 228 200 1535
90 292 210 1699
100 363 220 1872
110 443 230 2053
120 531 240 2243
130 627 250 2341 first pouch emergence
140 731 260 2770
150 884 270 3340
160 965 280 3910

Reprinted with permission from Currumbin Sanctuary

Eastern grey kangaroos emerge permanently from the pouch at 310 days.

Red kangaroo Macropus rufus

Age (days) Weight (grams) Age(days) Weight (grams)
20 5 140 621
30 10 150 745
40 21 160 889
50 39 170 1047
60 64 180 1221
70 65 190 1412 first pouch emergence
80 138 200 1621
90 139 210 2030
100 251 220 2820
110 325 230 3610
120 410 240 4400
130 509 250 5190 final pouch emergence

Reprinted with permission from Currumbin Sanctuary

Common wallaroo Macropus robustus

Age (days) Weight (grams) Age (days) Weight (grams)
10 3 125 282
15 4 130 315
20 5 135 350
25 7 14 387
30 8 145 427
25 9 150 469
40 12 155 514
45 16 160 562
50 22 165 612
55 29 170 665
60 36 175 721
65 46 180 780
70 56 185 842
75 68 190 907 First pouch emergence
80 81 195 1065
85 96 200 1310
90 113 205 1555
95 131 210 1800
100 151 215 2045
105 173 220 2290
110 197 225 2535
115 224 230 2780
120 252 235 3025

Reprinted with permission from Currumbin Sanctuary

The final pouch emergence happens around 240 days.

Red-necked wallaby Macropus rufogriseus

Age (days) Weight (grams) Age (days) Weight (grams)
20 10 160 590
30 24 170 732
40 36 180 843
50 48 190 988
60 53 200 1086
70 62 210 1200
80 87 220 1330 first pouch emergence
90 105 230 1540
100 138 240 1840
110 184 250 2040
120 210 260 2290
130 287 270 2540
140 358 280 2790 final pouch emergence
150 476

Reprinted with permission from Currumbin Sanctuary

Whiptail wallaby Macropus parryi

Age (days) Weight (grams) Age (days) Weight (grams)
10 4 150 333
20 5 155 392
30 7 160 428
40 10 165 460
50 13 170 494
60 18 175 531
70 25 180 571
75 30 185 614
80 35 190 661
85 41 195 710
90 48 200 764
95 57 205 821
100 67 210 883 first pouch emergence
105 78 215 993
110 92 220 1103
115 108 225 1213
120 127 230 1323
125 149 235 1433
130 175 240 1543
135 206 245 1653
140 242 250 1763
145 284 255 1873

Reprinted with permission from Currumbin Sanctuary

The final pouch emergence happens around 260 days.

Swamp wallaby Wallabia bicolour

Age (days) Weight (grams) Age (days) Weight (grams)
20 16 140 334
30 21 150 43
40 27 160 553
50 35 170 673
60 45 180 813
70 58 190 963
80 75 200 1113
90 97 210 1263 First pouch emergence
100 125 220 1473
110 161 230 1683
120 207 240 1893
130 267 250 2103

Reprinted with permission from Currumbin Sanctuary

The final pouch emergence happens around 270 days.

Red-necked pademelon Thylogale thetis

Age (days) Weight (grams) Age (days) Weight (grams)
10 2 110 183
15 5 115 198
20 9 120 213
25 13 125 230
30 18 130 246
35 23 135 264
40 30 140 281
45 37 145 292
50 44 150 332
55 53 155 377
60 61 160 425
65 71 165 478
70 81 170 536
75 92 175 600 first pouch emergence
80 103 180 650
85 115 185 710
90 127 190 775
95 140 195 850
100 154 200 930
105 168 205 1010 final pouch emergence

Reprinted with permission from Currumbin Sanctuary

Last updated: 11 January 2005

Marsupials

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