The coastal zone: Coastal water quality
- Authors
- Reviewer
- Key findings
- Indicators and summary of status
- Importance
- Pressure and condition
- Response
- References
Authors
Simon Costanzo, Angela Lawton, Munro Mortimer,
Andrew Moss, Ian Ramsay and David Scheltinga, Environmental Protection Agency
Reviewer
Andrew Steven, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
Key findings
- Poor water quality can be caused by pollutants from point sources (such as discharges from sewage treatment plants or other industry) or by pollutants from diffuse sources (pollutants derived from broad areas of a catchment).
- In some locations, point sources continue to cause exceedences of water quality guidelines, particularly of nutrient guidelines, although improved treatment of point source effluents has led to considerable reductions in nutrient levels.
- The impacts of diffuse source pollutants are much more complex and difficult to assess than those of point sources.
- Evidence from load assessments and from water quality in places such as Moreton Bay and the Great Barrier Reef lagoon suggests that the impacts of diffuse sources are now much more important than those of point sources.
- Changes in the treatment of point source discharges have led to improvements in water quality that can be observed in the short term. However, trends related to water quality improvements in response to overall changes in catchment management take much longer to manifest and the four-year interval between state of the environment reports is usually much too short to detect these types of trends.
- Overall discharge loads of nitrogen and phosphorus from point sources in major urban centres have decreased since 2001-02.
- Overall discharge volume from major wastewater treatment plants has not changed significantly since 2001-02.
- In 2004-05, about 50% of wastewater treatment plants in south-east Queensland were at a high standard for nitrogen removal, while 15% were at a high standard for phosphorus removal.
- Treatment standards for both nitrogen and phosphorus removal in other parts of Queensland were generally low.
- It is difficult to ascertain whether algal blooms have been increasing throughout Queensland's coastal and marine waters (because of a lack of a defined reporting system), though reports and research have shown a continued if not increasing trend in the incidences and magnitudes of such blooms in southern Queensland waters.
- We currently do not know enough about bioaccumulated pollutants and marine pollution incidents to adequately report on their impacts on Queensland's native plants and animals.
Indicators and summary of status
Because of a general lack of data across Queensland and the large amount of variability typically involved, it is not currently possible to code the indicators as 'good', 'of concern' or 'poor' for Queensland.
Indicator |
Status of indicator |
Bioaccumulated pollutants |
Dolphin and whale species in Queensland waters have relatively low dioxin concentrations. However, dioxin levels in dugongs from some regions are high relative to those in marine mammals from international areas that are considered relatively polluted. |
Algal blooms in estuarine and marine environments |
Although detailed records of algal blooms throughout Queensland are not available, the intensity and frequency of algal blooms in recent years appear to be increasing. |
Coastal discharges |
Sewage treatment plants are the major source of coastal nutrient discharges, though other industries can also contribute significantly. Since 2001-02 the overall discharge loads of nitrogen and phosphorus have reduced, reductions being seen in some regions and increases in others. |
Wastewater treatment (coastal waters) |
Overall discharge volume from wastewater treatment plants has not changed significantly since 2001-02. Some regions showed no change despite increasing populations, while others decreased by up to 20% or increased by as much as 28%. |
Marine pollution incidents |
The impact that the current number and level of maritime pollution incidents have on Queensland's native plants and animals is unknown. |
Exceedences of marine and estuarine water quality guidelines |
Dissolved oxygen, turbidity and chlorophyll- a meet guideline values for much of the time, while the higher rate of non-compliance with total nitrogen and total phosphorus guidelines is a result of the impacts of point source discharges. |
Importance
Estuarine, coastal and marine ecosystems form a continuum comprising a diversity of habitats and communities, extending from the landward influence of saltwater out to the oceans. Within Queensland, habitats such as beaches, dunes, rocky shores, seagrass beds, coral reefs, saltmarshes, saltpans and mangroves are home to a variety of commercially, recreationally and culturally important native plants and animals. Good water quality is essential for maintaining the health of these ecosystems.
The quality of estuarine and coastal waters is closely linked to the surrounding and upstream catchments and the land use activities occurring within them. Discharges of pollutants such as organic matter, nutrients, sediments and toxicants (pesticides, heavy metals and oils) from both diffuse and point sources pose a significant risk to the biological condition of estuarine, coastal and marine ecosystems. With continuing population growth within the state, particularly in coastal areas, the maintenance and/or improvement of the quality of the state's waters is a major priority. If the current activities that are adversely affecting coastal water quality are not adequately managed to reduce the pressures, then detrimental and costly ecological, social and economic impacts will occur.
The key stressors affecting the quality of Queensland's estuarine and coastal waters are increased loads or concentrations of nutrients, toxicants (pesticides, heavy metals and oils), sediments, bacteria/pathogens and organic matter; input of low pH waters from acid sulfate soil runoff; and alterations to the freshwater flow regime and hydrodynamics of the system (EPA 2003 b).
Pressure and condition
Bioaccumulated pollutants
A review prepared by the National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (EnTox) for Queensland's Environmental Protection Agency concerning levels and potential sources of dioxins in Queensland (Holt et al. 2006) noted that dioxin levels in wildlife from some Queensland regions are greater than those reported elsewhere. However, to date the contamination cannot be conclusively associated with a particular source or formation process. Accordingly, it cannot be determined at this time whether the measured dioxin levels in wildlife originate from anthropogenic or natural sources; nor is there any evidence of harm to any wildlife populations attributable to their dioxin exposure.
The review noted that the distribution profile of dioxins in Queensland soils, sediments and lower trophic biota (that is, non-carnivores such as dugongs) is characterised by a strong dominance of octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (OCDD), low furan concentrations and a dominance of 1,4,6,9-substituted isomers (1,4-pattern) (see the term 'dioxin' in the glossary). Current research at EnTox is focused on the natural formation of OCDD during bushfires or the re-emission of OCDD from bushfires, and the formation of OCDD from anthropogenic precursors (pesticides and their impurities) and the subsequent dechlorination of OCDD in the environment.
Biomagnification of persistent organic pollutants is a well-recognised phenomenon in high trophic position marine mammals because of their long life spans and high fat reserves, but the Holt et al. (2006) review reports that studies have shown that such mammals in Queensland waters (that is, various dolphin and whale species) have relatively low dioxin concentrations and TEQ (toxic equivalence calculated from the concentrations of individual dioxin-like chemicals and their WHO toxic equivalency factors). However, in the relatively low trophic dugongs from some regions of Queensland, the dioxin levels exceed those in higher trophic marine mammals (Figure 6.12), and are high relative to high trophic marine mammals from areas considered relatively polluted, such as the Mediterranean and Baltic seas, Lake Baikal and the waters off British Columbia.
Figure 6.12 TEQDioxin* and TEQPCB pg/g* (lipid) concentrations in marine mammals analysed to date from Queensland and other Australian states
*See www.environment.gov.au/settlements/chemicals/dioxins/factsheet2 for an explanation of these terms.
1. Correll et al. 2004.
2. Haynes et al. 1999; Gaus 2002; Gaus et al. 2001.
3. Ruchel 2001.
Source: Correll et al. 2004
Algal blooms in estuarine and marine environments
Algal blooms are the overgrowth of macroalgae and/or phytoplankton in response to natural or anthropogenic changes to the environment. Algal blooms have major detrimental effects on estuarine and marine environments. They degrade recreational amenity and fisheries, can be toxic, affect natural ecosystems, and have major consequences for tourism.
Lyngbya majuscula
An ongoing coastal algal bloom problem in Queensland is Lyngbya majuscula, a natural cyanobacterium that under certain conditions blooms, smothers and can kill benthic organisms such as seagrass and corals. Lyngbya blooms have been reported since 1999 at a number of sites along the Queensland coast including Cape Kimberly (reef), Hinchinbrook Island (seagrass), Hardy Reef (reef), Whitsunday Island (reef and seagrass), Scawfell Island (reef), Shoalwater Bay (seagrass), Keppel Islands (reef and seagrass), Hervey Bay (seagrass), Fraser Island (coffee rock) and Moreton Bay (seagrass) (Albert et al. 2005). Lyngbya blooms have been prominent in Moreton Bay in south-east Queensland, where much of the research and mapping have been undertaken (Figure 6.13). Blooms of Lyngbya are continually detected in the summer in the north-west ( Deception Bay) and eastern (Eastern Banks) regions of Moreton Bay. Outbreaks of Lyngbya have been associated with dissolved iron and phosphorus from adjacent land use practices, but the precise mechanism is yet to be determined.
Figure 6.13 Recorded blooms (red area) of Lyngbya majuscula in Moreton Bay, 2002-03 to 2005-06
Source: EPA
Hincksia sordida
The foreshore of Noosa in south-east Queensland has also been subject to algal blooms of the brown macroalga Hincksia sordida that have occurred from September/October to December/January in 2002, 2003 and 2004. These blooms substantially reduced the recreational value of the beaches and had negative impacts on the local community. The origin and cause of this macroalga is still unknown, but it is thought to have originated in the north close to Fraser Island, then drifted south and been deposited on the beaches of Noosa.
Trichodesmium
Trichodesmium blooms are a common, natural event in Queensland between August and December, when sea temperatures rise and onshore winds become more prevalent. This type of bloom was documented by Captain Cook's expeditions of the 1770s, and is not attributable to pollution or human interference. It occurs on a similar scale in tropical seas in other places around the world. Trichodesmium sometimes looks similar to an oil slick, resulting in reports of suspected pollution incidents in the affected area. It is generally not visible, but during extended calm water periods it can rise to the water surface and form clumps of brown threads that resemble sawdust sprinkled on the ocean's surface. Blooms and the beaches affected by the bacteria often develop a putrid, fishy odour. These blooms typically disappear within a few days. Blooms of Trichodesmium have been reported along the entire Queensland coastline, suggesting that the intensity and frequency of blooms in recent years is increasing.
Coastal discharges
Point source discharges to coastal waters in Queensland originate from sewage treatment plants and a range of industries such as refineries, abattoirs, mining, aquaculture and piggeries/feedlots. In Queensland, the majority of nutrients in point source discharges are from sewage treatment plants, although other industries can also contribute significantly. Chemical or heavy industries typically produce small amounts of nutrients but higher amounts of other pollutants such as metals, pesticides, acids/bases or organics. Diffuse sources are typically the major contributor of suspended sediment loads to coastal water but are not discussed here.
The loads of nitrogen and phosphorus for 2004-05 from major point source discharges have been analysed for major urban centres and compared with 2001-02 loads where data are available (Table 6.12). Overall, the loads of nitrogen and phosphorus have reduced. The majority of nutrient loads come from the south-east Queensland regions although nutrient loads from other regional urban centres are significant and typically at high concentrations. Reductions in nitrogen and phosphorus loads were observed in the Brisbane and Gold Coast/Logan regions. An increase in nitrogen loads in the Sunshine Coast region is due mainly to an increase in the volume released by the Maroochydore sewage treatment plant since 2001-02. Fewer data are available for the major urban centres outside south-east Queensland, although nitrogen loads for the Rockhampton and Cairns regions have increased by 17% and 27%, respectively. A corresponding increase in phosphorus loads from the Cairns region was also observed.
Significant upgrades of wastewater treatment plants are currently being implemented for urban centres such as Mackay, Townsville and Cairns. Wastewater treatment upgrades involving advanced nitrogen removal and filtration have also occurred in south-east Queensland since 2004-05 and are planned through to 2008; the results of these should be seen in the next state of the environment report. The Western Corridor recycling project is also likely to reduce nutrient loads, although the majority of nutrients will be released back to the Brisbane waterways with the waste concentrate stream.
Table 6.12 Nitrogen and phosphorus discharge loads from major point sources in coastal urban regions for 2004-05 and the percentage change since 2001-02
Coastal Regions |
Nitrogen |
Phosphorus |
||
Load 2004-05 (kg) |
Change since 2001-02 (%) |
Load 2004-05 (kg) |
Change since 2001-02 (%) |
|
Gold Coast/Logan |
302 923 |
-10 |
199 551 |
-8 |
Brisbane |
1 491 224 |
-17 |
958 444 |
-10 |
Sunshine Coast |
187 509 |
9 |
65 583 |
-21 |
Rockhampton/Fitzroy |
78 020 |
17 |
46 120 |
-6 |
Mackay |
165 944 |
na |
51 569 |
na |
Townsville |
na |
na |
na |
na |
Cairns |
229 028 |
27 |
100 807 |
25 |
Total: |
2 454 649 |
-10 b |
1 422 074 |
-8 b |
:Based on 2000 data; b excludes Mackay and Townville; na = not available.
Source: EPA
Table 6.13 The number of major wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) for urban regions, associated volumes of release for 2004-05 and changes since 2001-02
Coastal regions |
Number of WWTP discharges |
Volume 2004-05 (ML/day) |
Volume change since 2001-02 (%) |
Gold Coast/Logan |
4 a |
66 707 |
3 |
Brisbane |
22 |
164 504 |
0 |
Sunshine Coast |
7 a |
31 682 |
27 |
Rockhampton/Fitzroy |
3 |
6 459 |
13 |
Mackay |
2 |
5 714 |
20 b |
Townsville |
3 |
na |
na |
Cairns |
6 |
17 407 |
28 |
Total |
47 |
292 473 |
2 c |
a Involves combined discharges; b change based on 2000 data; c excludes Townville; na = not available.
Source: EPA
Wastewater treatment
Wastewater treatment plants in coastal areas of Queensland release treated wastewater to estuaries, bays and open coasts. Levels of treatment include primary (removal of suspended and organic matter), secondary (removal of biodegradable organics, suspended solids and nutrients), and tertiary (removal of residual suspended solids, nutrients and pathogens). Approximately two-thirds of major wastewater treatment plant discharges in coastal Queensland are in south-east Queensland.
In 2004-05, the overall discharge volume from wastewater treatment plants of major urban regions increased only slightly from 2001-02 levels (Table 6.13). The Brisbane and Gold Coast/Logan regions showed volumes similar to those in 2001-02 despite population growth. This may be because of conservation in raw water usage, increased water recycling, and reduced sewer infiltration from lower rainfall. Other smaller regions such as Rockhampton and Mackay showed greater decreases. In comparison, the Sunshine Coast and Cairns regions showed increases of nearly 30% in discharge volumes. In Brisbane and the surrounding areas, major reduction in wastewater discharge volumes is expected in the future as a result of proposed water recycling initiatives. For example, the Western Corridor Project will deliver advanced, tertiary-treated wastewater to the Swanbank and Tarong power stations.
The level of treatment of wastewater treatment plants and associated volumes have been analysed for major discharges from urban regions in Queensland for 2004-05, in terms of average total nitrogen and average total phosphorus concentrations in the final effluent
(see Figures 6.14 and 6.15). Untreated water can cause disease and pollution. Treatment standards such as primary, secondary and tertiary levels exert different (progressively lessening) pressure on coastal waters.
The volumes of wastewater have been broken up into the three categories based on concentrations of total nitrogen (TN) in the final effluent: low treatment (TN over 15 mg/L); medium treatment (TN between 5 and 15 mg/L); and high treatment (TN less than 5 mg/L). High treatment levels usually result from advanced biological treatment and might include advanced filtration. The results for 2004-05 show that 85%, 40% and 43% of discharge volumes from the Gold Coast/Logan, Brisbane and Sunshine Coast regions were at a high standard of treatment for nitrogen removal. Nearly 20% of discharge volumes in the Brisbane region were at a low standard of treatment for nitrogen removal. In comparison, wastewater treatment in central and northern Queensland regions was generally of a lower standard in terms of nitrogen removal, with limited high standard of treatment. Significant wastewater treatment upgrades involving advanced nutrient removal and filtration have occurred in south-east Queensland since 2004-05 and are planned through to 2008; the results of these should be seen in the next state of the environment report.
The volumes of wastewater have also been broken up into three categories based on concentrations of total phosphorus (TP) in the final effluent: low treatment
(TP over 5 mg/L); medium treatment (TP between 2 and 5 mg/L) and high treatment (TP less than 2 mg/L). High treatment levels require chemical addition or biological phosphorus removal. The results for 2004-05 show that the 15%, 9% and 45% of discharge volumes from the Gold Coast/Logan, Brisbane and Sunshine Coast regions were at a high standard of treatment for phosphorus removal. Nearly 80% of discharge volumes in the Brisbane region were at a low standard of treatment for phosphorus removal. In comparison, wastewater treatment in central and northern Queensland regions was of a much lower standard in terms of phosphorus removal, with the majority at a low level of treatment. Overall, the standard of treatment for phosphorus removal was lower than that for nitrogen removal.
Figure 6.14 Volumes of wastewater released in 2004-05 from major urban centres and associated levels of treatment based on total nitrogen (TN) concentrations in the final effluent
Source: EPA
Figure 6.15 Volumes of wastewater released in 2004-05 from major urban centres and associated levels of treatment based on total phosphorus (TP) concentrations in the final effluent
Source: EPA
Table 6.14 Oil spill incidents in Queensland from July 2003 to June 2006
Oil type |
No. of incidents |
||
2003-04* |
2004-05* |
2005-06* |
|
Diesel |
25 ( NR ) |
24 ( 2587 ) |
27 ( 3465 ) |
Bilge oil |
16 ( NR ) |
14 ( 665 ) |
12 ( 65 ) |
Lubricating oil |
0 ( NR ) |
0 |
2 ( 75 ) |
Hydraulic oil |
7 ( NR ) |
0 |
2 ( 30 ) |
Heavy fuel oil |
3 ( NR ) |
2 ( 40 ) |
3 ( 1000 ) |
Others |
31 ( NQ ) |
38 ( NQ ) |
15 ( NQ ) |
82 incidents recorded, |
78 incidents recorded, |
61 incidents recorded, |
|
*July to June. NR = not recorded. NQ = not quantifiable.
Note: 2005-06 does not include the oil spill from the vessel
Global Peace in Gladstone Harbour in January 2006. This involved
25 tonnes of heavy fuel oil, of which 18 tonnes was recovered.
Source: MSQ
Marine pollution incidents
Marine pollution incidents generally involve petroleum hydrocarbon (PHC) spills and are associated with a range of adverse environmental impacts that vary in severity according to the nature and quantity of the material spilt and the aquatic ecosystems exposed to the consequences of an incident.
Mishaps associated with the storage of fuel or during refuelling of vessels in harbours and farm machinery in rural areas are a common source of diesel fuel spills to areas of land and into waterways. Unfortunately, diesel fuel is one of the more potentially toxic PHC mixtures.
The potential impacts of oil spills on waterways may be the result of the floating slick, the dissolved fraction, or both. The environmental hazards posed by surface slicks include coating of vegetation and sediment surfaces, smothering of benthic organisms, fouling of the plumage of birds, and poisoning of animals that feed on oil-contaminated plants and animals directly contaminated by the slick.
At present we have no information on what impacts the current number and level of maritime pollution incidents have on Queensland's native plants and animals. There are no background data on PHC contamination of waters or sediments in Queensland. Following the Global Peace spill in Gladstone in January 2006, the Port Curtis Integrated Monitoring Program that operates out of the Centre for Environmental Management (UCQ Gladstone campus) began a post-spill impacts monitoring program.
Maritime Safety Queensland holds data on oil spill incidents in Queensland, but not on their impacts (Table 6.14).
Exceedences of marine and estuarine water quality guidelines
Regular programs of collection of water quality data in Queensland estuarine and marine waters undertaken in the period 2003-07 included:
- an extensive program of monitoring of estuaries and coastal waters within the south-east Queensland region (New South Wales border to the Noosa River) carried out through the Healthy Waterways Partnership-the Ecosystem Health Monitoring Program (EHMP);
- routine monitoring of a number of major estuaries between Maryborough and Rockhampton undertaken by the Environmental Protection Agency; and
- monitoring of a limited number of indicators in the Great Barrier Reef lagoon undertaken by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and the Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Elsewhere in the state, regular collection of water quality data in estuarine or marine waters is very limited in scope. A statewide broad assessment of the health of Queensland estuaries was undertaken as part of the National Land and Water Resources Audit in 2002 but this was discussed in the previous reporting period (EPA 2003b).
Table 6.15 shows the extent of exceedence of ANZECC Guidelines in estuarine waters for the three regions for which recent data are available (Burnett Mary, Fitzroy and south-east Queensland). While there are some differences since the previous reporting period, the patterns are similar. No clear trends are apparent. Dissolved oxygen, turbidity and chlorophyll- a meet guideline values for much of the time, while the more frequent exceedence of total nitrogen and total phosphorus guidelines is a result of the impacts of point source discharges.
For south-east Queensland, much more detailed assessments of condition and trend are undertaken to support the annual Healthy Waterways Report Card (Ecosystem Health Monitoring Program, 2002-06). Figures 6.16 and 6.17 show annual report card grades (A to F) for south-east Queensland estuarine and Moreton Bay waters over the period 2002-06. Estuaries (Figure 6.16) exhibit a wide range of condition, from very good in the Noosa River to poor in the Brisbane and Logan rivers, both of which are subject to point source discharges and considerable urban runoff. No consistent regional trends are apparent, but over time some estuaries have shown improvement while quality has declined in others. In Moreton Bay (Figure 6.17), Bramble Bay has improved, probably because of upgrades to the Luggage Point STP. In contrast, in the southern Bay there appears to have been a consistent decline in water quality. Although considerable work has been done over this period to improve the quality of point discharges it is thought that the benefits of this are being counteracted by increases in diffuse loads of pollutants resulting from increasing human populations and associated development.
With respect to water quality in the Great Barrier Reef lagoon, a recent Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority report (GBRMPA 2005) states that both broadscale and time-series data sets of water quality in the Reef lagoon indicate that nutrient, suspended particulate matter and chlorophyll- a concentrations in Reef waters are generally low. While ambient nutrient, chlorophyll- a and suspended sediment levels are generally low, high concentrations of nutrients occur episodically in plumes of flooding rivers and over regional domains disturbed by the passage of tropical cyclones, and these give rise to short-lived plankton blooms. Persistent cross-shelf gradients in chlorophyll- a concentration are found in the central and southern regions of the Reef, reflecting enhanced nutrient availability at the coast from terrestrial runoff and recurrent resuspension of nearshore sediments. To date, however, no significant net long-term changes in chlorophyll- a concentration have been observed at the regional scale.
Table 6.15 Summary of regional estuarine and coastal water quality condition
Water quality parameters |
% |
% Moderate |
% |
No. of sites |
Burnett Mary region |
||||
Total nitrogen |
70 |
17 |
13 |
23 |
Total phosphorus |
61 |
13 |
26 |
23 |
Dissolved oxygen |
95 |
5 |
0 |
60 |
Water clarity |
82 |
8 |
10 |
60 |
Chlorophyll- a |
74 |
17 |
10 |
42 |
Fitzroy region |
||||
Total nitrogen |
60 |
0 |
40 |
5 |
Total phosphorus |
60 |
0 |
40 |
5 |
Dissolved oxygen |
100 |
0 |
0 |
27 |
Water clarity |
52 |
22 |
26 |
27 |
Chlorophyll- a |
89 |
11 |
0 |
20 |
SEQ region |
||||
Total nitrogen |
60 |
0 |
40 |
226 |
Total phosphorus |
60 |
0 |
40 |
226 |
Dissolved oxygen |
100 |
0 |
0 |
226 |
Water clarity |
52 |
22 |
26 |
226 |
Chlorophyll- a |
89 |
11 |
0 |
226 |
Good = Source: EPA
Figure 6.16 EHMP report card grades for south-east Queensland estuaries, 2002-06
Source: EHMP
Figure 6.17 EHMP report card grades for Moreton Bay and Gold Coast Broadwater, 2002-06
Source: EHMP
Response
Standards for the quality of point source discharges continue to be tightened through the EPA's licensing procedures, and the extension of these tighter standards to discharges across Queensland is continuing. Management of diffuse sources of pollutants is much less straightforward and involves a much wider range of actions. These types of actions are being, and will be, implemented largely through the NRM regional bodies with support from the Queensland and Commonwealth governments. However, the outcomes of these actions in terms of improved water quality are unlikely to be evident for decades and there will need to be a strong ongoing commitment to continue with these types of actions in the long term.
Loads of nitrogen and phosphorus from many existing point source discharges are likely to decrease in the future as a result of significant upgrades of wastewater treatment plants and continual improvement efforts. New point source discharges undergo a strict assessment process to ensure that environmental values are protected and that regionally set load targets will be met in the future. In general, no net increase in nutrients is preferred, along with efforts to reduce loads in the future. The new SEQ Healthy Waterways strategy will continue the focus on reducing discharge of nutrients to Moreton Bay, while the Reef Plan ( DPC 2003) sets out targets for reducing diffuse loads in other coastal parts of Queensland.
Significant upgrades of wastewater treatment plants involving advanced biological nutrient removal, filtration and recycling are planned and being implemented in Queensland by local government. Most wastewater treatment plants are being designed at a high standard to achieve low nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in the final effluent. Major water recycling projects are also being implemented and will reduce the volume of wastewater released directly to coastal waters.
Research is being undertaken at the National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology concerning potential sources of the dioxins accumulated by wildlife from some Queensland regions. Further avenues of response are not practical until the source is better determined.
Maritime Safety Queensland continues to collect data on petroleum hydrocarbon spillages, and there is close liaison between that organisation and the Queensland EPA in regard to the enforcement of measures to minimise the risk of such incidents and in the detection and prosecution of those responsible.
References
Albert, S., O'Neil, J.M., Udy, J.W., Ahern, K.S., O'Sullivan, C.M. and Dennison, W.C. 2005, 'Blooms of the cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula in coastal Queensland, Australia: disparate sites, common factors', Marine Pollution Bulletin 51: 428-37.
Correll, R., Müller, J., Prange, J., Gaus, C., Shaw, M., Holt, E., Bauer, U., Symons, R. and Burniston, D. 2004, Dioxins in Fauna in Australia, National Dioxins Program Technical Report No. 7, Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra.
DPC 2003, Reef Water Quality Protection Plan; for catchments adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, State of Queensland and Commonwealth of Australia, Queensland Department of the Premier and Cabinet, Brisbane, viewed 20 December 2006, www.reefplan.qld.gov.au.
EPA 2003a, Bacteria bloom affects beaches, Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane,
EPA 2003b, State of the Environment Queensland 2003, Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane.
Gaus, C. 2002, Dioxins in the marine environment: sources, pathways and fate of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and -dibenzofurans in Queensland, PhD thesis, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology and School of Public Health, Department of Health, Griffith University, Brisbane.
Gaus, C., Päpke, O., Blanchard, W., Haynes, D., Connell, D.W. and Müller, J.F. 2001, 'Bioaccumulation and pathways of PCDDs in the lower trophic marine system', Organohalogen Compounds 52: 95-98.
GBRMPA 2005, First Annual Marine Monitoring Programme Report September 2005, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville.
Haynes, D., Müller, J. and McLachlan, M. 1999, 'Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in Great Barrier Reef ( Australia) dugongs (Dugong dugon)', Chemosphere 38: 255-262.
Holt, E., Gaus, C. and Mueller, J. 2006, Dioxins in Queensland: a review of levels and potential sources, prepared for Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane, 15 January 2006, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology,
The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Ruchel, M. 2001, Toxic dolphins: a Greenpeace investigation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in South Australian bottlenose dolphins, Greenpeace Australia-Pacific Pty Ltd, Sydney.
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Last reviewed 17 May 2011
Last updated 13 February 2008