Environment and Resource Management

Human settlements: Urban water use

Author

Steven Kenway, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

Reviewers

Mark Askins, Queensland Water Commission
Ken Aitken, Department of Natural Resources and Water
Claire Diaper and Peter Franzmann, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

Key findings

Indicators and summary of status


Indicator

Status of indicator

Water use

Total water use in South East Queensland increased over the period 1998-2005 before water restrictions were introduced. Total water supplied by Brisbane Water and Gold Coast Water combined increased from 275 000 ML/year in 1998-99, rising to over 325 000 ML/year in 2004-05, then dropped to 162 000 ML in 2005-06 after the introduction of water restrictions.

Water reuse

In 2004-05, South East Queensland reused approximately 19 000 ML/year. Although data for all of SEQ are not available, water recycled by Brisbane City Council and Gold Coast City Council has increased from 5000 ML in 1998-99 to 13 000 ML in 2004-05.

Water use per capita

Water use per capita was relatively stable in the period from mid-1998 to 2005, ranging from 80 to 110 KL per person per year. This dropped to around 80 KL per person in 2005-06.

Importance

Water security and climate change are currently regional, state, national and global issues. While some information is presented for the whole of Queensland, this issue paper focuses on South East Queensland (SEQ). This area has high population growth and is currently facing substantial water shortage issues. Comparison is made with other major urban areas around Australia because SEQ together with Sydney, Melbourne and Perth will collectively house the great majority of Australia's population growth for the next 25 years (WSAA 2005a).

At the time of writing (September 2007) SEQ remains influenced by the worst drought in the region's recorded history (DNRMW 2006a). The major urban centres in SEQ are subject to unprecedented Level 5 water restrictions. At this level of restrictions outdoor use of water for established gardens is almost entirely banned, town water cannot be used to wash vehicles or fill or top up swimming pools, households using more than 800 L of water per day are required to submit a water use assessment form, and all residents are encouraged to reduce water use to less than 140 L per person per day.

Most other major Australian cities are also affected by drought and have varying levels of restrictions in place. Climate change or climate shift has affected or will affect traditional water supplies in Australia and New Zealand (Howe et al. 2005; IPCC 2001). This brings challenges to our current water management and policy. Many of the solutions are energy-intensive per unit of water delivered. For example, desalination, pumping and wastewater treatment all use substantial energy (Gardner et al. 2006). Consequently these actions can contribute to increased emissions of greenhouse gases unless strategies are implemented to reduce or offset emissions (Humphries et al. 2005). In addition, high predicted population growth and relatively high (non-restricted) water consumption rates (to 2005) in SEQ make solving water supply and use issues important for the future of the region.

Pressure and condition

Urban water use in Queensland

The total amount of water supplied by Queensland's 60 urban water supply schemes for residential, multi-residential, industrial, commercial and municipal use, as well as other use, was in the range 457-544 gigalitres (GL) from 2003-04 to 2005-06 (Table 9.15). In the same period, the total average water supplied ranged from 419 to 514 litres/person/day (L/p/d) servicing a collective population of around three million persons. The state's urban schemes comprise city, town and shire councils and water boards.

Table 9.15 Water use and population served for the state's 60 urban schemes from 2003-04 to 2005-06

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

Population served

2 819 519

2 902 482

2 984 908

Total supplied (GL)

523

544

457

Total average water supplied (L/p/d)

508

514

419

Source: DNRMW 2005, 2006b; DNRW unpublished

Urban water use in SEQ

In SEQ, baseline demand for urban purposes including residential and industrial water is approximately 450 000 ML/year (DNRMW 2006b; AWA 2005). In addition there is demand for around 150 000 ML/year of rural water in the Lockyer and Bremer valleys and Logan Basin (DNRMW 2005) and around 27 000 ML is used for power generation at Swanbank and Tarong power stations. Brisbane and Gold Coast City collectively supply around 70% of urban water used in SEQ (AWA 2005) and in 2004-05 supplied 325 000 ML of water (WSAA 2005b; WSAA et al. 2007). In the highly drought-affected year of 2005-06 approximately 290 000 ML was used in SEQ (Ken Aitken, pers. comm.), excluding use by Toowoomba, Maroochy, Caloundra and a number of other smaller rural councils (Figure 9.8). Brisbane City Council (which supplies water to surrounding local governments) and Gold Coast City Council supplied nearly 262 000 ML of water in 2005-06 (WSAA et al. 2007).

Between 1998-99 and 2004-05 total water supplied by Brisbane City Council (BCC) showed an upward trend (Figure 9.9). In 2004-05 BCC supplied just over 250 000 ML of water to consumers including around 80 000 ML of bulk water to surrounding local governments including Ipswich, Pine Rivers, Caboolture, Redcliffe and Logan (AWA 2005; WSAA 2005b). Per capita residential water use trends appear relatively stable (Figure 9.10). This suggests that population growth rather than people using more water is the root cause of upward water consumption trends. Parts of SEQ including the Gold Coast and Toowoomba were affected by drought during the latter part of this period, but most of the region was not subject to water restrictions until 2006. Between 1993-94 and 2000-01 consumption of water by Brisbane, Gold Coast and Ipswich cities was relatively stable at around 320 000 ML/year (Queensland Government 2003).

Figure 9.11 shows residential end uses of mains water on a per capita basis for the major urban centres in Australia. The data are estimates and have been compiled from water usage data published by the Water Services Association of Australia (WSAA 2005b) and public documents produced by water utilities. The figure highlights the substantial variation in per capita water use across Australian cities. This is primarily to the result of differences in outdoor use.


Figure 9.8 Water use in South East Queensland. Total consumption is 288 778 ML.
Source: Qld Water Commission; Mark Askins, pers. com.

 
Figure 9.9 Total water supplied (including bulk water sales) in South East Queensland, 1998-99 to 2005-06
Source: WSAA et al. 2007

 
Figure 9.10 Residential water supplied in South East Queensland, 1998-99 to 2005-06
Source: WSAA et al. 2007

 
Figure 9.11 Residential water use for four Australian city systems in 2005*
*Note: end use breakdown uses WSAA data for 2005 multiplied by the most recent reported end use percentage breakdown of water use for that city.
Sources: WSAA 2005b; Brisbane Water undated; City West Water 2007; Gold Coast Water 2005; Lovering et al. 2006; Roberts 2005; South East Water undated; Water Corporation 2001.

Water reuse

Collectively around 19 000 ML/year of water was reused in SEQ each year between 2003 and 2005. Gold Coast City, Brisbane City and Caboolture Shire account for around 15 000 ML of this total (Figure 9.12). Reuse to date has been primarily for irrigation of golf courses, turf farms and other rural industries. A refinery in Brisbane is a major user of recycled water, which offsets the need for potable supplies. While data are not readily available for all councils in SEQ, water recycled by Brisbane City Council and Gold Coast City Council has increased from 5000 ML in 1998-99 to 13 000 ML in 2004-05 (WSAA 2005b).

Population growth

The South East Queensland Regional Plan predicts that SEQ's population will rise from 2.7 million to 3.7 million in the period 2006 to 2026 (DLGPSR 2005). At this rate of growth, 20 000 new residences will be required each year, adding to the demand for water.


Figure 9.12 Water reuse in SEQ (approximate annual reuse between 2003 and 2005 [per council (GL)].
Sources: WSAA 2005b; Radcliffe 2004; AWA 2005

Response

Planning

The Queensland Government assumes primary responsibility for planning for water: the SEQ Regional Plan (DLGPSR 2005), South East Queensland Regional Water Supply Strategy (Qld Government 2006), Queensland Water Plan (Qld Government 2005a), and the Water Act 2000 are key documents. Local governments support these processes and contribute to demand management through operation of their assets and customer programs. Local government agencies such as Brisbane City Council, Gold Coast City Council and many smaller councils and SunWater are registered as Water Service Providers by the Department of Natural Resources and Water. The SEQ Water Corporation is the major bulk water supplier. In May 2006 the Queensland Water Commission was established to provide and oversee water security options. It is also charged with finalisation and implementation of the South East Queensland Regional Water Supply Strategy (Qld Government 2006).

The SEQ Regional Plan (DLGPSR 2005) outlines the future urban and rural growth and land use planning for the region. This plan, together with the associated Infrastructure Plan, aims to establish a number of principles for future water management including more efficient use, diversified supplies, and sustainable and equitable regional planning and water delivery.

The SEQ Regional Water Supply Strategy (SEQRWSS) was initiated in 2000 and outlines the proposed works and strategies to support the water component of the Regional Plan. Though current use is around 450 000 ML/year, an additional 300 000 ML/year of supply has been identified as being required by 2050. In the short term (by 2016) additional supply is anticipated to be sourced from the proposed new Wyaralong Dam and Traveston Dam (21 000 and 70 000 ML/year respectively); a desalination plant at Tugun (45 000 ML/year); recycling in the western corridor (30 000 ML/year); raising and water harvesting to Hinze Dam (16 000 ML/year); and other small projects totalling a further 38 000 ML/year. In the longer term, raising of Borumba Dam operating with Stage 2 of Traveston Dam is anticipated to deliver a further 150 000 ML/year. Water trading in the Mary, Moreton and Logan river systems and potential provision of recycled waters are anticipated to meet regional rural water needs. The SEQRWSS is currently being finalised (DNRMW 2006a).

The Queensland Water Plan (2005-2010) establishes seven strategies to be delivered by 2010, including securing water for the environment, planning for the future, smarter use, pricing for sustainability, protecting water quality, compliance with the Water Act 2000 and investing in science and technology (QG 2005).

The Water Act 2000 requires the preparation of water resource plans-and where necessary, resource operations plans-which ensure that water is equitably managed to preserve our quality of life and our aquatic ecosystems. A water resource plan describes the government's aims of meeting a catchment's social, economic and environmental needs, while a resource operations plan explains how water resources will be managed from day to day to meet these objectives. The environmental flow objectives incorporated in this Act aim to protect the health of natural ecosystems from future projects under the plan. The objectives attempt to minimise change to natural flow conditions.

Strategy implementation

Prolonged drought has recently necessitated fast-tracking of many measures and consideration of new approaches. These include the Western Corridor Water Recycling Project (WCWRP), which will be the first planned indirect potable reuse (IPR) scheme in Australia and one of the largest in the world (Gardner and Dennien 2007). The WCWRP will take 230 ML/day from six wastewater treatment plants and treat this to purified recycled water standards in three advanced water treatment plants, then reticulate this through 200 km of pipeline for use by two power plants and various industries and provide up to 130 ML/day of potable water augmentation to Lake Wivenhoe (Gardner and Dennien 2007).

Other strategies and initiatives in place to achieve reductions in water use in SEQ include mandatory restrictions on outdoor water uses; rebates for water-efficient devices (shower roses, dual-flush toilet suites) and rainwater tanks; requirements for water recycling and water-efficient appliances in new developments; water recycling targets; and 'fit for purpose' strategies for major industrial and commercial users. In addition to state strategies, some local governments are also participating in the Home WaterWise Service scheme, which is a retrofit program. The Department of Natural Resources and Water is implementing the Home and Garden WaterWise Rebate Scheme, which has been operating in SEQ since July 2006.

These approaches also support the SEQRWSS draft potable water consumption (unrestricted use) targets of 270 L/person/day by 2010 and 230 L/person/day (84 KL/person/year) by 2020 (DNRMW 2006a), a reduction from the 2004 regional average of 300 L/person/day (AWA 2005). In the current drought conditions and under Level 5 restrictions, a target of 140 L/person/day (48 KL/person/year) is in place until rainfall occurs. Although this target has represented a major challenge for SEQ, it was achieved recently. These targets should be readily achievable in Brisbane and the Gold Coast, where residential use has been less than 270 L/person/day for most of the past five years. However, other SEQ areas may find these targets harder to achieve.

The Queensland Government has recently agreed to make changes to legislation dealing with the installation of greywater from domestic systems, as well as industrial and commercial reuse, although approval of individual greywater treatment systems rests with local councils. The use of untreated greywater can have impacts on soils and in some circumstances can adversely affect runoff water quality. This is largely dependent on management and particularly relevant to some soil types which are susceptible to structural breakdown.

Future requirements

South East Queensland is poised to move forward from its current linear water system to a closed loop system. Our current infrastructure is designed to use water once (whether this is sourced from mains water, roofwater or stormwater) and discharge it. Use of recycled water supported by monitoring, management and research will ensure continual improvement, management of risks and longer-term engagement with the community. In the short term it is obviously critically important to continue implementation of the SEQRWSS to ensure continuity of water supply to SEQ. A range of supporting actions, investigation and analysis, along with development of relevant policy and legislative frameworks, are necessary to support this work.

In the longer term there is a need to prepare for a paradigm shift in our management and use of water resources, particularly for urban communities. While infrastructure plans have been developed rapidly and are being implemented, a commensurate shift may also be required in our social, governance, economic and information systems relating to water.

In moving to more complex urban water systems it is important to further develop performance indicators and link these indicators including pressures on, state of and responses to the condition of the water cycle. In addition, indicators are needed to enable comparison of performance across centralised and decentralised water servicing options. The use of energy and the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the capture, treatment, delivery and use of water are an example. Life cycle analysis of water supply systems would help characterise embedded energy flows and greenhouse emissions associated with different water options such as desalination, reuse or rainwater tanks. This could be used to develop performance indicators which link water and energy. An example would be the volume of water supplied per tonne of greenhouse gases emitted.

Ideally, whole of water cycle indicators would examine urban water use in the context of local environmental conditions. For example, the total water used in SEQ could be expressed as a proportion of total environmental flows into Moreton Bay. This would provide powerful indicators of the level of influence the urban system is exerting on natural water flows. Tracking of virtual water movements (water embedded in goods and services used in the city including food, fibre and electricity) would help understand the total impact of the urban environment on surrounding systems.

Coordinated 'whole of water cycle' information management and reporting would help identify the links between water use, wastewater discharge, stormwater runoff and environmental quality. In part this is being addressed through the National Water Initiative reporting framework (WSAA et al. 2007) and the proposed SEQ Water Accounting Framework. Mass balances of water and related amounts of energy (carbon) and nutrients moving through the urban system would also gain context if expressed as a proportion of the system as a whole.

At the development and household scale a range of innovations are also necessary. A number of recommendations are summarised in Diaper et al. (2007). These include the need for:

There is also a need to improve coordination between planning and research at the regional and subdivisional scales.

References

ABARE 2006, Energy Update June 2006, Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Canberra, viewed 21 June 2006, www.abareconomics.com/interactive/energy.

AWA 2005, Status of Water in South East Queensland, Australian Water Association, a report for the Courier-Mail, viewed 25 July 2006, www.awa.asn.au.

BCC 2005, Water for Today and Tomorrow: An Integrated Water Strategy for Brisbane, Brisbane Water Updated, Brisbane City Council, Brisbane, viewed 15 June 2007, www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/bccwr/plans_and_strategies/documents/
water_strategy_final_pages_2_11.pdf.

City West Water 2007, Water in Your Home, Melbourne, viewed 15 June 2007, www.citywestwater.com.au/education/water_in_your_home.html.

Diaper, C., Tjandraatmadja, G. and Kenway, S. 2007, Sustainable Subdivisions-Integrated Water Services Review, CRC Construction Innovation, Brisbane.

DLGPSR 2005, South East Queensland Regional Plan 2005-2026, Office of Urban Management, Department of Local Government, Planning, Sport and Recreation, Brisbane, viewed 3 April 2007, www.oum.qld.gov.au/.

DNRMW 2005, Annual Water Statistics, Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Water, Brisbane.

DNRMW 2006a, Annual Water Statistics, Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Water, Brisbane.

DNRMW 2006b, South East Queensland Regional Water Supply Strategy Stage 2 Interim Report, Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Water, Brisbane.

DNRMW 2006c, Water Resources of Queensland, Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Water, Brisbane.

Gardner, T and Dennien, B. 2007, Why has SEQ decided to drink purified recycled water? Reuse 07, Water Reuse and Recycling 2007, Khan, S. Stuetz, R. and Anderson, J. (eds).

Gardner, T., Millar, G., Christiansen, C., Vieritz, A. and Chapman, H. 2006, Urban Metabolism of an Ecosensitive Subdivision in Brisbane, Australia, Enviro 06 Conference and Exhibition, Melbourne.

Gold Coast Water 2005, Life Past Drought, viewed 23 May 2007, www.goldcoast.qld.gov.au/attachment/goldcoastwater/LifePastDroughtNews.pdf (PDF)*.

Howe, C., Jones, R., Maheepala, S. and Rhodes, B. 2005, Melbourne Water Climate Change Study: Implications of Potential Climate Change for Melbourne's Water Resources, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Melbourne.

Humphries, R., Waite, R., Rogoysky, P., Huxtable, P. and Hess, M. 2005, 'Moving towards Carbon Neutrality, Ozwater 2005 Watershed-the turning point for water', Water 32(4).

IPCC 2001, Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptations and Vulnerability, McCarthy, J., Canziani, O., Leary, N., Dokken, D., and White, K., Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, UK.

Lovering, J., O'Shanassay, K., Heeps, D., Beaton, R., Wilson, G., Rhodes, B., Santamaria, D., Vinot, K., Sheehan, D., Chapman, T. and Donald, A. 2006, Water Supply-Demand Strategy for Melbourne 2006-2025, Melbourne Water, viewed 15 January 2007, www.melbournewater.com/content/library/water/water_storages/water_supply-demand_strategy.pdf (PDF)*.

QG 2005a, Queensland Water Plan 2005-2010: An Action Plan to meet our future water needs, Queensland Government, Brisbane.

QG 2006, Water for South East Queensland: A Long Term Solution, Queensland Government, Brisbane.

Radcliffe, J.C. 2004, Water Recycling in Australia, review undertaken by the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering, Parkville, Victoria.

Roberts, P. 2005, Yarra Valley Water Residential End Use Measurement Study, Yarra Valley Water, viewed 23 May 2007, www.yvw.com.au/NR/rdonlyres/983166CA-B506-4C08-8B95-5EDD378CFB53/0/REUMSReportFinal.pdf (PDF)*.

South East Water undated, How Much Water Do You Use?, viewed 15 January 2007, www.southeastwater.com.au/Pages/SouthEastWater.aspx.

Water Corporation 2001, Catchment to Tap, viewed 23 May 2007, www.watercorporation.com.au/_files/publicationsregister/8/
catchment_to_tap.pdf.

WSAA 2005a, Testing the Water-Urban Water in Our Growing Cities: the Risks, Challenges, Innovation and Planning, Position Paper No. 1, Water Services Association of Australia, Melbourne.

WSAA 2005b, The Australian Urban Water Industry WSAAfacts 2005, Water Services Association of Australia, Melbourne.

WSAA 2007, National Performance Report 2005-2006 Major Urban Utilities, Water Services Association of Australia, Melbourne.

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Last reviewed 18 May 2011
Last updated 13 February 2008

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