Human settlements: Chemicals in the environment
- Authors
- Reviewer
- Key findings
- Indicators and summary of status
- Importance
- Pressure and condition
- Response
- References
Authors
Faiz Khan and Peter Thorning, Environmental Protection Agency
Reviewer
Christine Williams, Environmental Protection Agency
Key findings
- Public awareness of and concern about chemicals in the environment have increased significantly over recent years and there is an expectation that governments will introduce measures to reduce and manage the chemical burden in the environment.
- Governments have started undertaking steps to assess the risks associated with environmental chemicals and are keen to put in place measures to deal with them.
- The number of facilities reporting to the National Pollutant Inventory on their emissions is steadily increasing.
Indicators and summary of status
Indicator |
Status of indicator |
Government actions to assess environmental chemical burden and undertaking of risk mitigation measures |
|
Number of facilities reporting to the National Pollutant Inventory |
|
]
]Importance
Anthropogenic activity results in the emission of chemicals to air, land and water. Chemicals can be released to the environment as a result of their manufacture, processing and use. Chemicals can find their way into garden soil, food products, groundwater basins, creeks and rivers through atmospheric deposition, stormwater runoff, wastewater discharges and application to food crops and animal feed. For example, endocrine disrupting chemicals or compounds (EDCs) find their way into the environment through human use and production followed by disposal or release into soil, air and water.
Globally, the concentration and mass load of pollutants are increasing as a result of increasing population and industrialisation. Although developed countries have reduced emissions in recent years, pollutant emissions in developing countries are increasing (UNEP 2002).
Marchi (1997) notes that pollution issues are not as obvious as they once were. Obvious concerns, such as black smoke and foul odours, have been replaced by invisible toxic pollutants, acid rain, climate change and depletion of the ozone layer. In Australia, the change is even more pronounced, a significant portion of the population having moved 'from crowded, polluted and unhealthy environments to a land of wide spaces, sunshine and pristine environment' (Rae 2003).
The more complex pollution issues are generally less well understood by the population and increased public understanding and awareness are needed to bring about change (Marchi 1997).
Humans can be exposed to chemicals through the food they eat, the air they breathe, and the water they drink and bathe in. Chemicals often coat the surface of dust particles, which people handle or inhale. People are also exposed to hundreds of chemicals in everyday products they use.
Environmental chemicals-for example, metals, organochlorine and organophosphorous pesticides, herbicides, dioxins, phytoestrogens, phthalates, cadmium, lead, mercury, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs)-can have significant impacts on the environment.
Reducing the environmental release of chemicals through source reduction and other practices that reduce creation of pollution is a topical issue. The use of pesticides can have significant economic and other benefits, but pesticides also cause concerns for human health and the environment. They contain one or more biologically active substances that can also harm non-target organisms. Controlling the environmental risks of chemicals involves obtaining information on the effects of chemicals, and then assessing and reducing the related risks.
Pressure and condition
Stresses on ecosystems and humans have many important sources, including chemicals. The past 50 years have seen the introduction of many new chemicals. Many have stood the test of time and their benefits have been shown to outweigh their environmental risks. For some, however, significant adverse environmental effects have emerged. Researchers are studying the effects of chemicals on entire ecosystems, and long-term, multigenerational effects on fertility, reproductive quality and hormonal functions. Of major interest will be chemicals with the potential to be persistent, toxic and bioaccumulative.
In developed countries and in some developing countries, community involvement is seen as a useful mechanism in reducing pollutant emissions (Dasgupta et al. 2002; Gunningham et al. 2004). Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTRs) have been established in many countries using Community Right-to-Know (CRTK) legislation (OECD 1996). CRTK refers to requiring industry 'to provide information to the public and, in particular, to the local community, concerning the dangers presented by on-site chemical hazards or industrial waste that may be released into the environment as a result of industrial processes' (Gunningham 1995).
In Australia, a PRTR called the National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) was introduced in 1998; it has released eight years of pollutant emissions data (DEH 2007). Two kinds of information are collected: Facility Emissions Data (FED) and Aggregated Emission Data (AED). Facility Emissions Data are collected on an annual basis (usually financial year) from facilities that exceed reporting thresholds. Aggregated Emission Data include emissions from sources other than facilities that exceed thresholds. These include smaller facilities (below threshold), transport, agricultural and domestic sources. Aggregated Emission Data are collected from a variety of data sources that are updated intermittently, and are therefore not particularly suitable for preparing trend data.
Facility Emissions Data are useful for establishing a baseline for chemicals being emitted to the environment from facilities and assessing whether reduction programs targeted at such facilities are effective. Figures 9.16 to 9.20 show emissions from facilities in Queensland for a variety of chemicals over a four-year period. These graphs give a limited indication of trends in the release of chemicals from facilities to the environment. Over the period 2002-03 to 2005-06 toxic metal emissions for cadmium and chromium VI decreased initially and then trended upwards. For lead, emissions initially declined and then remained relatively static. Mercury showed a slight downwards trend over the four years. Emissions of organic chemicals (benzene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, toluene, xylenes and total volatile organic compounds) were variable, although the overall trend appeared to be neutral. Emissions from fuel-burning chemicals (carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide) appeared to have a slight upward trend. Further information and emissions data are available at the NPI website, www.npi.gov.au.
Figure 9.16 Toxic metal emissions-cadmium, chromium VI and mercury
Source: EPA
Figure 9.17 Toxic metal emissions-lead
Source: EPA
Figure 9.18 Organic chemical emissions-toluene, xylenes, benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Source: EPA
Figure 9.19 Organic chemical emissions-total volatile organic compounds
Source: EPA
Figure 9.20 Major fuel-burning chemical emissions-sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter Source: EPA
Response
Stockholm Convention
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) commits governments to reducing or, where feasible, eliminating the production and environmental release of 12 persistent organic pollutants (Aldrin, Chlordane, DDT, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, Mirex, Toxaphene, Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Hexachlorobenzene, Dioxins and Furans).
Australia ratified the Stockholm Convention in 2004 and has developed the National Plan of Implementation. The measures outlined in this plan will significantly reduce the potential for any environmental harm posed by chemicals listed in the Stockholm Convention.
Rotterdam Convention
The objective of the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade is to promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among parties in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment from potential harm and to contribute to their environmentally sound use by facilitating information exchange about their characteristics, by providing for a national decision-making process on their import and export, and by disseminating these decisions to parties to the Convention. Australia ratified the Rotterdam Convention in 2004.
National Dioxins Program
The Australian Government established the National Dioxins Program (NDP) in 2001 to improve knowledge about dioxins in this country. The program aimed to determine dioxin levels, assess the risks to Australians and the environment, and consider appropriate management actions. The NDP has focused on the 29 most toxic of these compounds, which are recognised internationally as being harmful to humans and the environment. The National Action Plan to deal with issues related to dioxins was adopted in 2005.
National Framework for Chemical Environmental Management
The Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC) Chemicals Working Group has developed a set of proposed reforms under the National Framework for Chemical Environmental Management (NChEM) to improve the environmental risk management of chemicals used in Australia. The proposed NChEM reforms outline specific activities that will be required for chemicals management under a set of four linked action areas:
- strengthening environmental risk assessment-better consideration of environmental impacts in national chemicals assessments;
- streamlining environmental controls-nationally agreed actions to control risks to the environment from high-risk chemicals across all states and territories;
- informing decisions-improving the capture of chemical impact information so that it is used effectively to inform decision making on chemicals; and
- prioritising action-strategic consideration of priority and emerging chemical issues affecting the environment.
It is anticipated that the NChEM will be implemented following an intergovernmental agreement in 2007-08. Implementation of the NChEM in Queensland will significantly reduce the environmental implications
of chemicals.
National Pollutant Inventory
The National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) is the only nationwide, publicly accessible inventory of substance emissions in Australia.
By visiting www.npi.gov.au, the community, government and industry can explore a key source of information about pollution in Australia. The NPI program was established in 1998 to collect and collate the nation's emissions data. It is a cooperative effort by the Australian, state and territory governments to help create a cleaner and healthier environment (DEH 2007). Currently, 1022 Queensland industries are reporting to the NPI.
References
Dasgupta, S., Laplante, B., Wang, H. and Wheeler, D. 2002, 'Confronting the Kuznets curve', Journal of Economic Perspectives, 16(1): 147-168.
DEH 2004, National Dioxins Program, Dioxins in Australia: a summary of the findings of studies conducted from 2001 to 2004, Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra.
DEH 2007, Australia 's National Pollutant Inventory, Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra, viewed January 2007, www.npi.gov.au/.
Gunningham, N. 1995, Empowering the Public: Information Strategies and Environment Protection, in Environment Crime, 1-3 September 1995, Australian Institute of Criminology Conference Proceedings, Hobart.
Gunningham, N., Kagan, R.A. and Thornton, D. 2004, 'Social licence and environmental protection: Why businesses go beyond compliance', Law and Social Inquiry 29: 307.
Marchi, S. 1997, 'Psychology research for environmental policy', Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 29: 224.
OECD 1996, Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTRs): A tool for environmental policy and sustainable development, Guidance manual for governments, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris.
Rae, I.D. 2003, 'Federalism in the regulation of chemical pollutants in Australia', Prometheus 21(2): 247-264.
UNEP 1999, Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva.
UNEP 2001, Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva.
UNEP 2002, Global Environment Outlook 3 (GEO-3): Past, Present and Future Perspectives, United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva.
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Last reviewed 12 May 2011
Last updated 13 February 2008