Fraccing
Fraccing is the process of creating cracks in underground coal seams to increase the flow and recovery of gas out of a well.
In the case of coal seam gas (CSG), fraccing involves pumping a fluid comprised largely of water and sand (99%) under pressure, into a coal seam to fracture the seam and increase the flow of gas.
Due to the varying geology of coal seams, fraccing is not carried out in all CSG operations. Currently, approximately eight per cent of Queensland’s domestic CSG wells have been fracced.
It is estimated that as the industry expands, between 10 and 40 per cent of wells may be fracced.
- Why chemicals are used in fraccing
- Regulating the use of BTEX
- Chemicals and compounds used in the fraccing process
- Fraccing risk assessment and reporting
- Frequently asked questions
- Queensland’s fraccing facts
Why chemicals are used in fraccing
The fraccing process involves a number of stages with different additives in each stage.
Water and sand make up about 99 per cent of the materials used in fraccing fluid. Sand (referred to as a proppant) makes up about nine per cent of fraccing materials. The sand keeps the crevices and cracks open, allowing water and gas to flow from the coal seams.
Due to its fluidity, water (approximately 90 per cent) is not the most effective carrier of sand. Other materials are added to make the mixture more gel-like and to hold the sand in suspension as it is pumped into the coal seam.
The exact nature of fraccing fluid mixtures used by CSG companies in Queensland may vary due to the geological formation being fracced and the temperature and depth of the formation.
Fraccing fluid purposes
The additives in a fraccing fluid are used for the following purposes:
- acid (such as hydrochloric acid) – removes cement and drilling mud from casing perforations prior to fraccing fluid injection
- activator (such as 2-butoxyethanol) – used to initiate foaming
- gelling agents and binders (such as guar gum) – these are used to increase the viscosity of the fracc fluid and allow more sand to be carried into the fractures
- cross linker (such as boric acid) – used to change the viscous fluid into a pseudo-plastic fluid enabling more proppant to be carried
- proppant (such as sand or quartz) – to hold the fracture faces apart
- breakers (such as ammonium persulphate) – these are used to break down the fracc gel and enable release of the proppant into fractures; they also enhance the recovery of the fraccing fluid
- buffers, stabilizers and solvents (such as potassium carbonate) – maintains the stability of the fracturing fluid, immobilises clays and enhances pre-fracture
- microbial control (such as sodium hypochlorite) – inhibits growth of organisms which could contaminate the gas resources and the fracc fluid
- surfactants (such as orange oil) – reduces the surface tension thereby aiding fluid recovery
- clay management (such as choline chloride) – used to minimise clay swelling in the vicinity of the well and in the formation
- corrosion inhibitor and oxygen scavenger (such as fumaric acid) – used to prevent corrosion of well equipment.
Regulating the use of BTEX
The government has introduced new laws which strictly regulate the adding of BTEX chemicals to coal seam gas fraccing fluids. Under the new laws, the BTEX chemicals, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene are not allowed to be added to fraccing fluids.
As BTEX chemicals commonly occur in natural water sources, the government has restricted the use of BTEX in the fraccing process to Australian environmental and human health standards.
The BTEX standards are measured in parts per billion (ppb). As guidance, 1 ppb is equivalent to 20 drops of liquid in a 25m swimming pool:
- Benzene – 1 ppb*
- Toluene – 180 ppb#
- Ethylbenzene – 80 ppb#
- m-Xylene – 75 ppb#
- o-Xylene – 350 ppb#
- p-Xylene – 200 ppb#
*Australian Drinking Water Guidelines
# Australia and New Zealand Environment Conservation Council (ANZECC) Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality.
The government has chosen these standards to ensure that BTEX chemicals do not contaminate drinking water or impact on groundwater dependant plants and animals.
The BTEX standards are one component of a broader range of rules and laws that operators must follow in relation to fraccing activities. These include operators undertaking fraccing risk assessments, short and long-term monitoring of fraccing bores and notification requirements
The BTEX standards apply to all new and existing CSG activities as a condition of their environmental authorities.
In the event that serious environmental harm is caused as a result of fraccing activities, the maximum penalty for an individual under the Environmental Protection Act is $416,500 or five years imprisonment. A corporation may be fined a maximum penalty in excess of $2 million.
Sources of BTEX
BTEX compounds occur naturally in crude oil and can be found in sea water in the vicinity of natural gas and petroleum deposits. Other natural sources of BTEX compounds include gas emissions from volcanoes and forest fires.
The primary man-made releases of BTEX compounds are through emissions from motor vehicles and aircrafts, and cigarette smoke. BTEX compounds are created and used during the processing of petroleum products and during the production of consumer goods such as paints and lacquers, thinners, rubber products, adhesives, inks, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products.
BTEX compounds are among the most abundantly produced chemicals in the world.
Common exposure to BTEX
The most common sources of exposure to BTEX compounds are from breathing contaminated air, particularly in areas of heavy motor vehicle traffic and petrol stations, and through cigarette smoke. Exposure to BTEX from water contributes only a small percentage of the total daily intake, compared with inhaled air and dietary sources.
All concentrations are reported in parts per billion (ppb) which is roughly equivalent to a teaspoon of material in an Olympic size swimming pool. Daily intakes are given in microgram per person, per day (µg/d)—a microgram is one millionth of a gram.
| Source of exposure | Benzene | Toluene | Ethylbenzene | Xylenes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Air breathing | 90 – 1,300 | 2 – 12,000 | 2 – 3,600 | 70 – 2,000 |
| Cigarette smoking | 1,800 | 2,000 | 40a | Up to 190a |
| Food | Up to 250 | Up to 64 | NA | NA |
a Assuming 5 cigarettes a day,b Assuming two litres a day
Benzene
Outdoor environmental levels of benzene range from 0.06 ppb in remote rural areas to 107 ppb in industrial centres with a high density of motor vehicle traffic. The percentage of benzene in unleaded petrol is approximately 1 to 2 per cent. Levels of up to 3,000 ppb of benzene have been measured in air at petrol stations.
Driving a motor vehicle for one hour per day is estimated to add 40 µg of benzene to a person’s daily intake. Spending a little under two minutes a week to refuel a car at the petrol station leads to an additional estimated daily intake of 10 µg.
Benzene has been detected at levels as high as 154 ppb in indoor residential air. Benzene can also occur in foods and drinks. Research in the United Kingdom has found benzene concentrations in soft drinks as high as 28 ppb.
Toluene
The largest source of toluene release is during the production, transport, and use of petrol, which contains about 5 to 8 per cent toluene. In remote areas, the concentrations of toluene in air have been found to be quite low, however levels from 1.3 to 6.6 ppb are common in suburban and urban areas, with levels as high as 350 ppb in areas of high traffic density.
Concentrations at a petrol station can be as high as 2,400 ppb. Refilling a car can add significantly to daily toluene intake.
Toluene is also used in common household products such as paints, adhesives and nail polish. Toluene is occasionally detected in drinking water supplies, but occurrence is not widespread with levels generally below 3 ppb.
Ethylbenzene
Ethylbenzene is a common compound in ambient air, primarily resulting from industrial activities and vehicle emissions. Petrol contains about 1 to 2 per cent ethylbenzene.
At urban sites, ethylbenzene concentrations range from 0.1 to 83 ppb. Levels found at rural sites are generally less than 0.46 ppb.
Ethylbenzene is also found in products such as pesticides, solvents, paints, varnishes, automotive products, adhesives, and fabric and leather treatments.
The compound is detected infrequently in drinking water while levels of ethylbenzene in uncontaminated groundwater are generally less than 0.1 ppb.
Xylene
Xylene is a compound primarily released from industrial sources and motor vehicle exhausts. In urban and industrialised areas, xylene levels have been measured at up to 178 ppb. Petrol contains 7 to 10 per cent of xylenes. It is also used as a solvent. Typically, background levels of xylene in ambient air are around 0.23 ppb. In suburban areas it can be around three times higher.
BTEX in groundwater
The BTEX compounds are found naturally in crude oil, coal and gas deposits and therefore they can be naturally present at low concentrations in groundwater in the vicinity of these deposits. The BTEX levels can range from 0.1 ppb to 100 ppb in typical groundwater.
Guideline BTEX levels
Public health guidelines for BTEX are available for drinking water in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG). These guidelines are based on the amount of a chemical that can be ingested every day over a lifetime without adverse effect.
Benzene is a known carcinogen (cancer causing). The ADWG specify that it should not be detected in drinking water at more than 1 ppb. The remaining chemicals (toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes) are not recognized as carcinogenic and their drinking water health guidelines are much higher at between 300 and 800 ppb.
In air, different types of guidelines are available for both ambient and occupational settings. In Queensland, the Environmental Protection (Air) Policy 2008 specifies guidelines for benzene, toluene and xylenes in air to ensure protection of human and environmental health.
These represent average daily exposure over a year of 3 ppb for benzene, 100 ppb for toluene and up to 200 ppb for xylene.
More information
More detailed information on BTEX is available in the research paper – A short primer on benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX) in the environment and in hydraulic fracturing fluids (PDF, 189K)*. This paper has been prepared by Dr Frederic Leusch and Dr Michael Bartkow from Griffith University’s Smart Water Research Centre for the Department of Environment and Resource Management.
Factsheet Fraccing and BTEX (PDF, 118K)*.
Chemicals and compounds used in the fraccing process
The current fraccing chemicals commonly used fall into several categories. The coal seam gas fraccing chemicals listed identify the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) number. CAS is a division of the American Chemical Society, which is the world’s authority for chemical information. A CAS number is a unique identifier for chemical substances.
Proppants
Proppants such as sand or quartz are used to hold the fracture open while the gas is released.
| CAS Number | Chemical type or name | Common function | Commonly found / used in household products | Common range (% vol of chemical in the frac fluid) | Volume (% of frac fluid) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 7732-18-5 | Water | Fraccing/proppant suspension | Drinking, bathing, cooking | 75% to 99% | The proppants and proppant suspension make up 98.5% to 99.6% of frac fluid |
| 7727-37-9 | Nitrogen | Fluid weight reducer / proppant suspension | Used in cryogenic, food processing, medical | 0% to 70% | |
| 14808-60-7 | Crystaline silica (quartz) | Proppant | Cat litter, tile mortar, arts & crafts, glass manufacture, ceramic glaze, glaze, concrete, paint | 0% to 25% | |
| 14464-46-1 | Crystalline silica (cristobalite) | Proppant | Sand and gravel | 0% to 25% |
Microbial controls
Microbial controls inhibit the growth of organisms which could contaminate the coal seam gas and the fracc fluid.
| CAS Number | Chemical type or name | Common function | Commonly found / used in household products | Common range (% vol of chemical in the frac fluid) | Volume (% of frac fluid) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 26172-55-4 | 5-chloro-2-methyl-2h-isothiazolol-3-one | Microbial control | Used in toiletries, cosmetics, dishwashing liquids | 0% to 1% | Not all of these chemicals are used at any one time, generally 3 to 10 of these may be used in a frac and compose approx 0.4% to 1.5% of the frac fluid |
| 2682-20-4 | 2-methyl-2h-isothiazol-3-one | Microbial control | Used in toiletries, cosmetics, dishwashing liquids | 0% to 1% | |
| 7681-52-9 | Sodium hypochlorite | Microbial control | Disinfectant, bleaching agent, cleaners, milk production, water treatment, dental sterilisation, medical use, wood cleaner/deck wash, mildew remover, phosphate free dishwasher gel, anti- bacterial cleanser | 0% to 1% | |
| 55566-30-8 | Phosphonium sulfate | Microbial control | Cooling systems/paper making industry | 0% to 1% | |
| 6410-41-9 | C.I. pigment red 5 | Microbial control | Food coloring, paints, agriculture | 0% to 1% |
Buffers, stabilisers, solvents etc
Buffers, stabilizers and solvents maintain the stability of the fraccing fluid immobilise clays and enhance pre-fracture.
| CAS Number | Chemical type or name | Common function | Commonly found / used in household products | Common range (% vol of chemical in the frac fluid) | Volume (% of frac fluid) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 584-08-7 | Potassium carbonate | Buffer, stablizer, solvent | Used for soap, glass, and china production | 0% to 1% | Not all of these chemicals are used at any one time, generally 3 to 10 of these may be used in a frac and compose approx 0.4% to 1.5% of the frac fluid |
| 127-09-3 | Sodium acetate | Buffer, stablizer, solvent | Used as flavouring additive in food industry | 0% to 1% | |
| 1310-73-2 | Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) | Buffer, stablizer, solvent | Food preparation, household drain cleaner, paper, soaps, detergents | 0% to 1% | |
| 144-55-8 | Sodium bicarbonate | Buffer, stablizer, solvent | Used as baking soda, cleaning, anti-pollutant | 0% to 1% | |
| 497-19-8 | Sodium carbonate (soda ash) | Buffer, stablizer, solvent | Water softener, swimming pools food additive (E500), glass | 0% to 1% | |
| 7647-01-0 | Hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) | Buffer, stablizer, solvent | Household cleaning, food additive, swimming pools, drinking water | 0% to 1% | |
| 463-79-6 | Carbonic acid | Buffer, stablizer, solvent | Commonly found in soda drinks | 0% to 1% | |
| 77-92-9 | Citric acid | Buffer, stablizer, solvent | Widely used in food industry to add flavor, also used in biological, cleaning, pharmaceutical | 0% to 1% | |
| 64-19-7 | Acetic acid | Buffer, stablizer, solvent | Vinegar, found in citrus fruits, descaling agent | 0% to 1% | |
| 533-96-0 | Carbonic acid, sodium salt | Buffer, stablizer, solvent | Food additive | 0% to 1% | |
| 100-43-52-4 | Calcium chloride | Filler, stabiliser | Detergents, cosmetics, deoderant, pet products, dessicant (moisture absorber), food additive, sports drinks, pickles | 0% to 1% | |
| 107-21-1 | Ethylene glycol | Filler, stabiliser | Used as an antifreeze agent, de-icing, printer inks | 0% to 1% | |
| 91053-39-3 | Diatomaceous earth, calcined | Filler, stabiliser | Toothpaste, hydroponics, agriculture (grain storage), filter media for drinking water | 0% to 1% | |
| 14807-96-6 | Magnesium silicate hydrate (talc) | Filler, stabiliser | Talcum powder, cosmetics, food additive, soaps, paper, paints, rubber, pottery | 0% to 1% | |
| 7631-86-9 | Non-crystalline silica | Filler, stabiliser | Glass, paints, coatings, fillers & plastics | 0% to 1% | |
| 64-02-8 | Tetrasodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate | Chelating agent | Used in the cosmetic industry | 0% to 1% | |
| 9000-70-8 | Gelatine | Corrosion inhibitor | Capsules for medicinals, desserts, jellies, ice cream | 0% to 1% | |
| 56-81-5 | Glycerine | Additive | Food and pharmaceutical industry, hair products | 0% to 1% |
Clay management
Clay management is used to minimise clay swelling in the vicinity of the well and in the formation.
| CAS Number | Chemical type or name | Common function | Commonly found / used in household products | Common range (% vol of chemical in the frac fluid) | Volume (% of frac fluid) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 67-48-1 | Choline chloride | Clay management | Common poultry feed additive | 0% to 1% | Not all of these chemicals are used at any one time, generally 3 to 10 of these may be used in a frac and compose approx 0.4% to 1.5% of the frac fluid |
| 7447-40-7 | Potassium chloride | Clay management | Table salt substitute, some medical treatments, garden products, pet suppliments, various hair products | 0% to 1.5% | |
| 26062-79-3 | Polydimethyldiallylammonium chloride | Clay management | Water treatment (drinking and waste-water), textiles, cosmetics, paper-making, soil treatment, drinking, bathing, cooking | 0% to 1% | |
| 75-57-0 | Tetramethyl ammonium chloride | Clay management | Type of salt | 0% to 1% | |
| 593-81-7 | Trimethylammonium chloride | Clay management | Dyeing | 0% to 1% | |
| 10377-60-3 | Magnesium nitrate | Clay management | Facial care, home garden uses, ceramics | 0% to 1% | |
| 7786-30-3 | Magnesium chloride | Clay management | Food industry (eg Tofu from soy milk), magnesium health supplements | 0% to 1% | |
| 112926-00-8 | Silica gel | Clay management | Cat litter | 0% to 1% |
Gelling agents and binders
Gelling agents and binders are used to increase the viscosity of the fracc fluid and allow more sand to be carried into the fractures.
| CAS Number | Chemical type or name | Common function | Commonly found / used in household products | Common range (% vol of chemical in the frac fluid) | Volume (% of frac fluid) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 10043-35-3 | Boric acid | Gel management | Used in cosmetics and skin care products | 0% to 1% | Not all of these chemicals are used at any one time, generally 3 to 10 of these may be used in a frac and compose approx 0.4% to 1.5% of the frac fluid |
| 102-71-6 | Triethanolamine | Gel management | Used in cosmetics and skin care products | 0% to 1% | |
| 1303-96-4 | Sodium tetraborate | Gel management | Component of many detergents, cosmetics, texturing agent in cooking | 0% to 1% | |
| 25038-72-6 | Vinylidene chloride/methylacrylate | Gel management | Used in plastic wrap for foods | 0% to 1% | |
| 7647-14-5 | Sodium chloride | Gel management | Food production, food additive, detergents, hair products, water softener | 0% to 1% | |
| 7722-84-1 | Hydrogen peroxide | Gel management | Used in hair bleach, food processing | 0% to 1% | |
| 7727-54-0 | Diammonium peroxidisulphate | Gel management | Hair bleach | 0% to 1% | |
| 7772-98-7 | Sodium thiosulfate | Gel management | Personal care, pet care, food production, aquarium/commercial aquaculture (food) | 0% to 1% | |
| 7757-82-6 | Sodium sulfate | Gel management | Textiles | 0% to 1% | |
| 7757-83-7 | Sodium sulfite | Gel management | Paper industry | 0% to 1% | |
| 9000-30-0 | Guar gum | Gel | Thickener in cosmetics, baked goods, ice cream, toothpaste, sauces and salad dressing | 0% to 1% | |
| 26038-87-9 | MEA borate | Crosslinker | Cosmetics, hair texturizer, hairspray, antiseptic, laundry detergent | 0% to 1% |
Breakers and surfactants
Breakers are used to break down the fracc gel and enable release of the proppant into fractures. They also enhance the recovery of the fraccing fluid. Surfactants reduce the surface tension thereby aiding fluid recovery.
| CAS Number | Chemical type or name | Common function | Commonly found / used in household products | Common range (% vol of chemical in the frac fluid) | Volume (% of frac fluid) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 111-76-2 | 2-Butoxyethanol | Surfactant | Various home surface cleaners, jewellery cleaner | 0% to 1% | Not all of these chemicals are used at any one time, generally 3 to 10 of these may be used in a frac and compose approx 0.4% to 1.5% of the frac fluid |
| 64-17-5 | Ethanol | Surfactant | Beer, wine & spirits | 0% to 1% | |
| 67-63-0 | Propan-2-ol | Surfactant | Solvent in cleaning fluid | 0% to 1% | |
| 68187-17-7 | C6-C10 Alcohol ethoxysulfate | Surfactant | Laundry detergent | 0% to 1% | |
| 68439-45-2 | Alcohols C6-C10 ethoxylated (surrogate C6-C12) | Surfactant | Household cleaners | 0% to 1% | |
| 7775-27-1 | Sodium persulfate | Breaker | Hair bleach | 0% to 1% | |
| 9025-56-3 | Hemicellulase enzyme | Breaker | Food industry, washing powder | 0% to 1% | |
| 9012-54-8 | Hemicellulase enzyme carbohydrates | Breaker | Common food additive | 0% to 1% |
Fraccing risk assessment and reporting
The Department of Environment and Resource Management (DERM) takes the regulation of fraccing activities, including the use of any chemicals that may end up in the environment, very seriously. Prior to obtaining approval to undertake fraccing activities, DERM requires operators to:
- provide details of their proposed operations
- detail the chemicals to be used
- develop a comprehensive risk assessment which considers both geology and toxicology to ensure that any environmental harm is prevented.
Fraccing is only allowed to go ahead if it is determined that the risk of groundwater or environmental contamination is minimal. If fraccing is authorised, companies must meet a number of strict environmental approval conditions, including adherence with the risk assessment and comprehensive monitoring requirements.
Operators are required to notify the government and landholders both prior to undertaking and after the completion of fraccing activities and to monitor their fraccing activities. DERM undertakes independent audits and reviews of fraccing operations in Queensland.
More information on fraccing (PDF, 118K)*.
Frequently asked questions
Q: What is BTEX?
A: BTEX refers to the chemicals benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene. These chemicals occur naturally in crude oil and can be found in sea water in the vicinity of natural gas and petroleum deposits.
Other natural sources of BTEX compounds include gas emissions from volcanoes and forest fires.
The primary man-made release of BTEX is through emissions from motor vehicles and aircraft and cigarette smoke.
BTEX chemicals are created and used during the processing of petroleum products and during the production of consumer goods such as paints, adhesives, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products.
BTEX compounds are among the most abundantly produced chemicals in the world.
Q: Has the Queensland Government banned the use of BTEX in petroleum and gas fraccing operations?
A: The Queensland Government has amended its environmental laws to ensure that BTEX chemicals are not actively used in fraccing activities and has introduced BTEX standards which now set tough benchmarks that all petroleum and gas (including coal seam gas) operators must comply with.
The BTEX standards apply automatically to all new and existing petroleum and gas activities as a condition of their approval and are both practical and enforceable with heavy penalties for non-compliance.
Q: Why were the BTEX standards gazetted after the changes to Queensland’s environmental laws relating to BTEX?
A; The Queensland Government has been working with industry representative bodies, fraccing service providers and commercial laboratories to determine practical and enforceable standards.
Setting industry standards has been a complex process due to the various methods used by operators to prepare fraccing fluids and the slight industry variations in the fraccing process.
The presence of naturally occurring BTEX further complicated the process, in terms of both reaching agreed standards, and determining the testing and monitoring regimes that would need to be in place to enforce the standards.
Importantly, in the interim, the environmental authorities for all new LNG projects have included conditions that prohibit the use of BTEX chemicals above the ADWG and ANZECC guidelines.
Q: How does the government ensure that operators do not exceed the standards?
The environmental authorities for operators include detailed requirements about undertaking monitoring activities including of nearby water bores. The Government also undertakes proactive inspections of companies operations and nearby water bores to verify any information received by operations.
The BTEX standards are one component of a broader range of rules and laws that operators must follow, and report on, in relation to fraccing activities. Other reporting and monitoring requirements include:
- operators conducting a fraccing risk assessment which will inform the operating conditions set by the government
- a requirement to undertake baseline and bore assessment of landholder bores
- a duty for operators to notify the government and landholders at least 10 days before undertaking any fraccing activities and 10 days after the activities have been completed. These notices contain information about planned versus actual chemicals and volumes used.
- a requirement for operators to submit detailed completion reports to the government.
Queensland’s fraccing facts
- Of the approximate 5000 conventional and domestic petroleum and gas wells currently in Queensland, just over eight per cent have been fracced. This equates to around 400 wells.
- Fraccing fluid is pumped into the coal seam to prop open small cracks and openings which provide a pathway for more gas to be released
- In Queensland, fraccing fluids are made up almost entirely of water and sand (typically 99 percent) but they also include a variety of additives used for various purposes, such as the prevention of bacterial growth and corrosion of infrastructure.
- Many of the fraccing additives are used in everyday life such as in swimming pools, soaps and vinegar.
- A number of the additives used in the fraccing process are designed to either oxidise or biodegrade during the fraccing activity or soon thereafter.
- The government has regulated disclosure of the chemicals used by operators
- Operators seeking Queensland Government approval to undertake fraccing activities are required to prepare and submit a risk assessment that considers over 26 potential risk factors. The fraccing will not be authorised if the risk assessment does not satisfy the government’s requirements.
- The risk factors include:
- details of the proposed chemicals to be used
- the toxicity of the chemicals and their mixtures
- the practices and procedures to ensure the fracc is contained within the target area
- environmental and human health hazard and impact assessments.
- The risk assessments must demonstrate that fraccing activities can be carried out in a way that does not cause environmental harm.
- The government uses the findings of the risk assessment to develop specific operating and monitoring conditions on each environmental authority. These conditions are legally enforceable and there are heavy penalties for non-compliance.
- Prior to carrying out fraccing, operators must determine the water quality in both the coal seam water and landholder bores.
- Close monitoring must occur during the fracc process to ensure that the activity is going according to plan and that no interconnectivity of aquifers occurs
- After the seam has been fracced, the fraccing fluids (flowback) are pumped out of the well. This water is stored in appropriately designed and constructed dams where it is either reused in further fraccing activities or treated to the appropriate environmental and human health standards.
- After fraccing has occurred flowback water quality and quantity must be monitored until one and a half times (150%) of the amount of the fluid used in the fracc has been returned to the surface. This is to ensure that all water used for the fracc is removed.
- Comprehensive impact monitoring requirements for landholders bores can continue for up to five years after fraccing has occurred.
- In the event that serious environmental harm is caused as a result of fraccing activities, the maximum penalty for an individual under the Environmental Protection Act is $416,500 or five years imprisonment. A corporation may be fined a maximum penalty in excess of $2 million.
* Requires Adobe Reader
Last updated 8 December 2011